Carbon capture technologies

Carbon capture technologies (eng. carbon capture technologies) are a set of methods that allow capturing carbon dioxide from point emissions (e.g., power plant chimneys or industrial plants), as well as directly from the atmosphere. Then CO₂ can be stored or used in further technological processes.

Thanks to these technologies, it is possible to significantly reduce net emissions and achieve climate neutrality. They also complement actions that increase energy efficiency and the development of renewable energy sources.

Carbon capture technologies can be divided into three main categories:

CCS – carbon capture and storage

In CCS technology, the most important element is long-term and safe storage of CO₂. After capture, the gas is compressed into a liquid form and transported by pipelines or tankers to storage sites, most often underground. Usually depleted oil and gas fields, deep geological formations, and saline underground reservoirs capable of permanently trapping CO₂ are used for this purpose. The advantage of CCS is the potential for large-scale emission reduction, especially in energy-intensive industries such as cement plants, steelworks, or coal power plants. However, it is also an expensive technology, requiring large investments in infrastructure, monitoring systems, and long-term supervision.

CCU – carbon capture and utilization

CCU involves converting captured carbon dioxide into useful products, which allows not only emission reduction but also gaining added value from CO₂. In practice, utilization can take various forms – from using CO₂ as a raw material in the chemical industry to produce methanol, polyurethanes, or salicylic acid, to mineralization, which means converting CO₂ into durable carbonates used in construction, e.g., as a concrete additive. Innovations using CO₂ for synthetic fuel production combined with hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources are also gaining popularity. Although CCU does not always lead to permanent carbon sequestration – since some products may eventually release CO₂ again – it fits into the circular economy model and offers commercialization prospects that make it more economically attractive in the short term.

DAC – direct air capture

This is a modern technology that removes CO₂ directly from the atmosphere. Air is passed through chemical or physical sorbents that bind CO₂. Although this technology has great potential, it is currently expensive and at an early implementation stage. In this case, atmospheric air is passed through filters or sorbents that selectively bind carbon dioxide. After the material is saturated, CO₂ is recovered and can be stored or processed. DAC is a solution that allows removing already emitted CO₂, making it an important tool for achieving negative emissions; however, due to the low concentration of CO₂ in the air, it is a very energy-intensive and costly technology.

Within CCS and CCU, various carbon capture techniques are used depending on the emission source:

• chemical absorption – uses amine solutions to bind CO₂; most commonly applied in industrial installations,
• physical adsorption – CO₂ adheres to the surface of porous materials, e.g., activated carbon or zeolites,
• separation membranes – selectively allow CO₂ to pass from gas mixtures,
• cryogenic separation – involves cooling gases to very low temperatures and separating CO₂ in liquid form,
• biological reactors – e.g., algae cultivation, which captures CO₂ from flue gas emissions and converts it into biomass.

Both technologies – CCS and CCU – can be implemented in various industrial sectors. In the energy sector, CCS is a tool for decarbonizing fossil fuel-based power plants. In cement and steel plants, where process emissions are difficult to eliminate, capturing and storing CO₂ can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of production. Meanwhile, CCU is used among others in the chemical, construction, and food industries (e.g., beverage carbonation), as well as in developing alternative fuel sectors.

Despite growing interest, carbon capture technologies are still associated with a number of challenges:

• high investment and operating costs - building a CCS installation can cost hundreds of millions of euros. The cost of capturing one ton of CO₂ ranges from 40 to 150 EUR, depending on the emission source and technology used,
• energy consumption - the CO₂ capture and compression process increases the plant’s energy demand. This means higher energy needs and potentially greater indirect emissions,
• need for transport and storage infrastructure - to be effective, CCS requires appropriate infrastructure: pipeline networks, geological storage, and monitoring and control systems,
• environmental and social risks - some local communities are skeptical about underground CO₂ storage – concerns include the possibility of leaks.

Currently, only some CO₂ capture technologies are economically viable without additional support mechanisms. Their profitability increases when:

• an emissions trading system (ETS) is in place – a high allowance price encourages emission reductions,
• grants and support mechanisms are available (e.g., from EU funds),
• CO₂ can be sold or used in further industrial processes (e.g., fuel production).

In the longer term, with tightening climate regulations, these technologies may become not just an option but a necessity in many heavy industry sectors.

In Europe and worldwide, more and more CO₂ capture projects are being developed to capture and permanently store CO₂ from industry and power generation. Below are some of the most advanced and significant examples from Europe:

Northern Lights (Norway)

Northern Lights is an international CCS project implemented in Norway, aiming to transport and permanently store CO₂ in subsea geological formations beneath the North Sea seabed. The project is part of a broader Norwegian initiative called Longship, supported by the Norwegian government, and is one of the first commercial ventures of its kind in Europe.

Northern Lights was launched jointly by Equinor, Shell, and TotalEnergies. Under the project, CO₂ captured from industrial plants (initially in Norway, and in the future also in other EU countries) will be liquefied and transported by ship to the terminal in Øygarden on Norway’s west coast. From there, it will be sent via pipeline to a designated rock formation under the seabed, at a depth of more than 2.5 km.

Northern Lights is designed to be a CO₂-origin-neutral “hub” available to many industrial companies from across Europe. Its role is to enable emission reductions in hard-to-decarbonize sectors such as cement, chemical, and refining industries. The project is scheduled to begin operations in 2025, with an initial storage capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of CO₂ per year, expandable in the future to 5 million tonnes or more.

Porthos (Netherlands)

Porthos (Port of Rotterdam CO₂ Transport Hub and Offshore Storage) is a CCS project being implemented in the Port of Rotterdam. The plan involves capturing CO₂ from industrial plants in the port area, transporting it via pipeline to a platform in the North Sea, and injecting it into a depleted gas field. Operations are planned to start in 2026. The project will initially have a storage capacity of 2.5 million tonnes of CO₂ per year, with potential for expansion. Companies involved include Air Liquide, ExxonMobil, Shell, and Air Products.

Project Greensand (Denmark)

Greensand is a CCS project initiated by the INEOS and Wintershall Dea consortium. Its goal is to inject CO₂ into the depleted Nini West oil field in the North Sea. In March 2023, the first cross-border CO₂ injection was carried out – the first case in history of storing CO₂ in a different EU country from its origin, which had significant regulatory implications. The project aims to store up to 8 million tonnes of CO₂ per year.

C4 (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland – research and development project)

Although Central Europe does not yet have large commercial CCS installations, research is underway on shared CO₂ capture and transport infrastructure as part of projects such as C4. Poland is actively studying the possibilities for geological storage of CO₂, including in Lower Silesia and the Bełchatów region.

CO₂ capture technologies are becoming an increasingly important part of strategies not only in the EU but also worldwide. Although their implementation currently involves high investment costs and a number of technological challenges, their role in decarbonizing sectors that are difficult to electrify is invaluable. Projects implemented in Europe, such as Northern Lights, Porthos, and Greensand, show that the scale and ambition associated with CO₂ capture and storage are growing. In the coming years, the development of infrastructure, support mechanisms, and viable business models may determine the wider application of these technologies also in Poland and Western Europe.