Carbon capture technologies

What are carbon capture technologies?

CO₂ capture technologies (carbon capture technologies) are a set of methods that allow for the capture of carbon dioxide from point emissions (e.g., power plant chimneys or industrial plants), as well as directly from the atmosphere. CO₂ can then be stored or used in further technological processes. 
Thanks to these technologies, it is possible to significantly reduce net emissions and achieve climate neutrality. They also complement energy efficiency measures and the development of renewable energy sources.

How do CO₂ capture technologies work?

Carbon dioxide capture technologies can be divided into three main categories:

• CCS – Carbon Capture and Storage

In CCS technology, the most important element is the long-term and safe storage of CO₂. After capture, the gas is compressed into liquid form and transported by pipelines or tankers to the place of its storage, usually underground. Typically, depleted oil and gas deposits, deep geological formations, and saline aquifers are used for this purpose, as they are capable of permanently trapping CO₂. The advantage of CCS is the potential for large-scale emission reduction, especially in energy-intensive industries such as cement plants, steelworks, or coal-fired power plants. However, it is also an expensive technology, requiring large investments in infrastructure, monitoring systems, and long-term supervision.

• CCU – Carbon Capture and Utilization

CCU involves converting captured carbon dioxide into usable products, which not only reduces emissions but also allows for the generation of added value from CO₂. In practice, this can take many forms – from using CO₂ as a raw material in the chemical industry for the production of methanol, polyurethanes, or salicylic acid, to mineralization, i.e., converting CO₂ into stable carbonates used in construction, e.g., as an admixture in concrete. Innovations using CO₂ to produce synthetic fuels in combination with hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources are also becoming increasingly popular. Although CCU does not always lead to permanent carbon capture – because some products may eventually release CO₂ again – it fits into the model of a circular economy and offers commercialization prospects that make it more economically attractive in the short term.

• DAC – Direct Air Capture

This is a modern technology that removes CO₂ directly from the atmosphere. Air is passed through chemical or physical sorbents that bind CO₂. Although this technology has great potential, it is currently expensive and in the early stages of implementation. In this case, atmospheric air is passed through filters or sorbents that selectively bind carbon dioxide. Once the material is saturated, CO₂ is recovered and can be stored or processed. DAC is a solution that allows for the removal of already emitted CO₂, which makes it an important tool for achieving negative emissions. However, due to the low concentration of CO₂ in the air, it is a very energy-intensive and expensive technology.

CO₂ absorption technologies – technical methods

Within CCS and CCU, different carbon dioxide capture techniques are used, depending on the source of emissions:

• chemical absorption – uses amine solutions to bind CO₂; most commonly used in industrial installations,
• physical adsorption – CO₂ adheres to the surface of porous materials, e.g., activated carbon or zeolites,
• separation membranes – selectively allow CO₂ to pass from a gas mixture,
• cryogenic separation – involves cooling gases to very low temperatures and separating CO₂ in liquid form,
• biological reactors – e.g., algae cultivations that capture CO₂ from exhaust emissions and process it into biomass.

Industrial applications – where do CO₂ capture technologies make the most sense?

Both technologies – CCS and CCU – can be implemented in various industries. In the energy sector, CCS is a tool for decarbonizing fossil fuel-based power plants. In cement and steel plants, where process emissions are difficult to eliminate, CO₂ capture and storage can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of production. In turn, CCU is used in the chemical, construction, food (e.g., carbonation of beverages), and the developing alternative fuel sectors, among others.

Costs and challenges of carbon capture technologies

Despite growing interest, CO₂ capture technologies still face a number of challenges:

• high investment and operating costs – building a CCS installation can cost hundreds of millions of euros. The cost of capturing one tonne of CO₂ ranges from EUR 40 to EUR 150, depending on the emission source and the technology used,
• energy consumption – the process of capturing and compressing CO₂ increases the energy consumption of the plant. This means higher energy demand and potentially higher indirect emissions,
• the need for transport and storage infrastructure – for CCS to be effective, appropriate infrastructure is necessary: pipeline networks, geological storage facilities, and monitoring and control systems,
• environmental and social risks – some local communities are sceptical about storing CO₂ underground; concerns include the possibility of leakage.

Are CO₂ capture technologies cost-effective?

Currently, only some CO₂ capture technologies are economically viable without additional support mechanisms. Their profitability increases when:

• the Emissions Trading System (ETS) is in force – the high price of allowances encourages emission reductions,
• subsidies and support mechanisms are available (e.g., from EU funds),
• CO₂ can be sold or used in further industrial processes (e.g., fuel production).

In the longer term, with tightening climate regulations, these technologies may become not so much an option as a necessity in many sectors of heavy industry.

Where are CO₂ absorption technologies already being implemented?

An increasing number of carbon dioxide absorption projects are developing in Europe and around the world, which aim to capture and permanently store CO₂ from industry and energy. Below are some of the most advanced and significant examples from Europe:

Northern Lights (Norway)

Northern Lights is an international CCS project implemented in Norway, the aim of which is to transport and permanently store carbon dioxide in submarine geological formations located under the bottom of the North Sea. The project is part of a broader Norwegian initiative called Longship, supported by the Norwegian government, and is one of the first commercial ventures of its kind in Europe.

Northern Lights was launched jointly by Equinor, Shell, and TotalEnergies. Under the project, CO₂ captured from industrial plants (initially in Norway and, in the future, also in other EU countries) will be liquefied and transported by ship to a terminal in Øygarden on the west coast of Norway. From there, it will be piped to a designated rock formation under the seabed, at a depth of more than 2.5 km.

Northern Lights is intended to be a CO₂-neutral ‘hub’ available to a range of industrial companies across Europe. Its role is to enable emissions reductions in sectors that are difficult to decarbonize, such as cement, chemicals, and refining. The project is scheduled to become operational in 2025, with a planned initial storage capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of CO₂ per year, with the possibility of future expansion to 5 million tonnes or more.

Porthos (Netherlands)

Port of Rotterdam CO₂ Transport Hub and Offshore Storage is a CCS project in the Port of Rotterdam. The plan is to capture CO₂ from industrial plants in the port area, transport it via a pipeline to a platform in the North Sea, and inject it into a depleted gas field. Operation is planned for 2026. The project is to have an initial storage capacity of 2.5 million tonnes of CO₂ per year, with the possibility of expansion. The project involves, among others, Air Liquide, ExxonMobil, Shell, and Air Products.

Project Greensand (Denmark)

Greensand is a CCS project initiated by a consortium of INEOS and Wintershall Dea. The aim is to inject CO₂ into the depleted Nini West oil field in the North Sea. In March 2023, the first cross-border injection of CO₂ was carried out – it was the first time in history that CO₂ was stored in an EU country other than its country of origin, which had significant regulatory significance. The project is expected to store up to 8 million tonnes of CO₂ per year.

C4 (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland – R&D project)

Although Central Europe does not yet have large commercial CCS installations, research is underway on common infrastructure for CO₂ capture and transport within projects such as C4. Poland is actively exploring the possibilities of geological CO₂ storage, including in Lower Silesia and the Bełchatów region.

"Carbon dioxide capture and utilization technologies (CCS, CCU, DAC) are an important element of the decarbonization strategy of heavy industry, especially in sectors where emission reduction is extremely difficult or even impossible at the moment, such as cement plants, steelworks, or the chemical industry. Their importance is growing in the context of the European Union's climate goals for 2030 and 2050, but also due to the costs of emissions in the EU ETS system.

Although CCS and CCU technologies require significant investment and infrastructure outlays – including in the field of separation, compression, and transport of CO₂ – for many plants they will be one of the emission reduction paths that will allow achieving the assumed level of climate neutrality. In the coming years, a further decrease in the costs of capture and development of investment support mechanisms, such as certification systems for removed CO₂, should be expected." – says Przemysław Kurylas, MSc. Eng., Operations Director at DB Energy.

Summary

CO₂ capture technologies are becoming an increasingly important element of strategies not only in the EU but also worldwide. Although their implementation currently involves large investment outlays and a number of technological challenges, their role in decarbonizing sectors that are difficult to electrify cannot be overestimated. Projects implemented in Europe, such as Northern Lights, Porthos, or Greensand, show that the scale and ambitions related to carbon capture and storage are growing. In the coming years, the development of infrastructure, support mechanisms, and profitable business models may determine the wider use of these technologies also in Poland and Western Europe.